martes, 17 de septiembre de 2019

Características genómicas de los cánceres infantiles (PDQ®) 2/9 –Versión para profesionales de salud - Instituto Nacional del Cáncer

Características genómicas de los cánceres infantiles (PDQ®)–Versión para profesionales de salud - Instituto Nacional del Cáncer

Instituto Nacional Del Cáncer

Características genómicas de los cánceres infantiles (PDQ®)–Versión para profesionales de salud

Leucemia mielomonocítica juvenil

El panorama genómico de la leucemia mielomonocítica juvenil (LMMJ) se caracteriza por mutaciones en 1 de los 5 genes de la vía Ras: NF1, NRAS, KRAS, PTPN11 y CBL.[336-338] En una serie de 118 casos de diagnóstico consecutivo de LMMJ con mutaciones que activan la vía Ras, PTPN11 fue el gen mutado con mayor frecuencia: representó 51 % de los casos (19 % en la línea germinal y 32 % somáticos) (consultar la Figura 3).[336] Los pacientes con una mutación en NRAS representaron 19 % de los casos y los pacientes con una mutación en KRAS representaron 15 % de los casos. Las mutaciones en NF1 representaron 8 % de los casos y las mutaciones en CBL representaron 11 % de los casos. Aunque las mutaciones en estos 5 genes suelen ser mutuamente excluyentes, 4 a 17 % de los casos tienen mutaciones en 2 de estos genes de la vía Ras,[336-338] un hallazgo que se relaciona con un pronóstico más precario.[336,338]
La tasa de mutaciones de las células leucémicas en la JMML es muy baja, pero se observan mutaciones adicionales en genes diferentes a los 5 genes de la vía Ras descritos antes.[336-338] Se observaron alteraciones genómicas secundarias en los genes del complejo represor de la transcripción PRC2 (por ejemplo, ASXL1 fue el gen mutado con mayor frecuencia en 7–8 % de los casos). Algunos genes relacionados con neoplasias mieloproliferativas en los adultos también tienen tasas bajas de mutaciones en la JMML (por ejemplo, SETBP1 estaba mutado en 6–9 % de los casos).[336-339] También se observaron mutaciones en JAK3 en un pequeño porcentaje de casos de LMMJ (4–12 %).[336,337,337,339] Los casos con mutaciones de la línea germinal en PTPN11 y de la línea germinal en CBL exhibieron tasas bajas de mutaciones adicionales (consultar la Figura 3).[336] La presencia de mutaciones adicionales a las mutaciones de la vía Ras que definen la enfermedad, se relacionan con un pronóstico más precario.[336,337]
En un informe en el que se describe el panorama genómico de la LMMJ se encontró que 16 de 150 pacientes (11 %) carecían de mutaciones canónicas de la vía Ras. De esos 16 pacientes, 3 presentaban fusiones en el marco de lectura que afectaban receptores tirosina cinasa (DCTN1-ALK, RANBP2-ALK y TBL1XR1-ROS1). Todos estos pacientes presentaban monosomía 7 y tenían 56 meses o más. Un paciente con la fusión ALK se trató con crizotinib y quimioterapia convencional, logró una remisión molecular completa, luego se sometió a un trasplante alogénico de médula ósea.[338]
AMPLIAREn el diagrama se muestran los perfiles de alteraciones en casos individuales de LMMJ.
Figura 3. Perfiles de alteraciones en casos individuales de LMMJ. Se muestran las alteraciones de la línea germinal y somáticas con coincidencias recurrentes en la vía RAS y la red PRC2 de 118 pacientes con LMMJ sometidos a pruebas genéticas minuciosas. El exceso de blastocitos se definió como un recuento de blastocitos ≥10 %, pero <20 % de células nucleadas en la médula ósea en el momento del diagnóstico. La crisis blástica se definió como un recuento de blastocitos con ≥20 % de células nucleadas en la médula ósea. NS, síndrome de Noonan. Reproducción autorizada de Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature GeneticsNotificación de salida (Caye A, Strullu M, Guidez F, et al.: Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia displays mutations in components of the RAS pathway and the PRC2 network. Nat Genet 47 [11]: 1334-40, 2015), Derechos de autor (2015). Sporadic JMML: leucemia mielomonocítica juvenil (LMMJ) esporádica; syndromic JMML: LMMJ sindrómica; patient ID: identificación del paciente; other: otro; del: deleción; spliceosome: empalmosoma; cytogenetics: citogenética; blast excess: exceso de blastocitos; blast crisis: crisis blástica; relapse: recaída; death: muerte; HSCT: trasplante de células madre hematopoyéticas (TCMH); RAS double mutation: mutación doble en RAS; any additional alteration: cualquier alteración adicional; somatic heterozygous point mutation: mutación puntual somática heterocigótica; somatic homozygous point mutation: mutación puntual somática homocigótica; germline heterozygous point mutation: mutación puntual en la línea germinal heterocigótica; germline homozygous point mutation: mutación puntual en la línea germinal homocigótica; somatic deletion: deleción somática; germline deletion: deleción de línea germinal; number of other somatic alterations: número de alteraciones somáticas adicionales; loss of heterozygosity: pérdida de heterocigosis; yes: sí; not applicable: no corresponde; unavailable data: no se dispone de datos; long-term survivor: sobreviviente a plazo largo; genetic lessions: lesiones genéticas; clinical features: características clínicas; synthesis: síntesis.
Las características generales de las células leucémicas brindan información pronóstica y orientación sobre las posibilidades terapéuticas para la LMMJ:
  • Número de mutaciones en vías diferentes a RAS. Un factor de predicción sólido del pronóstico para los niños con LMMJ es el número de mutaciones diferentes de las mutaciones de la vía RAS que son definitorias de enfermedad.[336,337] En el momento del diagnóstico se identificaron entre 0 a 1 alteración somática (mutación patógena o monosomía 7) en 64 pacientes (65,3 %), mientras que se identificaron 2 o más alteraciones en 34 pacientes (34,7 %).[337] En el análisis multivariante, el número de mutaciones (2 o más vs. 0 a 1) conservó importancia como factor de predicción de una supervivencia sin complicaciones y supervivencia general más precarias. Una mayor proporción de pacientes con diagnóstico de 2 o más mutaciones tenían más años y eran varones; estos pacientes también exhibieron una tasa más alta de monosomía 7 o mutación somática en NF1.[337] A partir de conclusiones y observaciones similares se informó que los pacientes con mutaciones dobles en la vía RAS (15 de 96 pacientes) tenían el riesgo más alto de fracaso del tratamiento.[336]
  • Inhibidores de la vía RAS-MAPK. Dado que la LMMJ es una enfermedad definida por las mutaciones en la vía RAS-MAPK, es posible especular que los inhibidores de esta vía (por ejemplo, inhibidores de MEK) tienen utilidad clínica para el tratamiento de la LMMJ. Sin embargo, los datos preclínicos que respaldan esta hipótesis no son congruentes [340,341] y no se dispone de datos clínicos.

Síndromes mielodisplásicos

Los síndromes mielodisplásicos (SMD) infantiles, si los comparamos con los SMD que se presentan en adultos, se relacionan con un conjunto característico de alteraciones genéticas. En adultos, los SMD a menudo surgen a partir de una hematopoyesis clonal y se caracterizan por la presencia de mutaciones en TET2, DNMT3A y TP53. Por el contrario, las mutaciones en estos genes son poco frecuentes en los SMD infantiles, aunque en subgrupos de casos de SMD infantiles se observan mutaciones en los genes GATA2, SAMD9/SAMD9L, SETBP1, ASXL1 y de la vía Ras/MAPK.[342,343]
En un informe del panorama genómico de los SMD infantiles se describieron los resultados de la secuenciación del exoma completo de 32 pacientes de SMD infantiles primarios y de la secuenciación dirigida de otros 14 casos.[342] Estos 46 casos se dividieron de manera equitativa entre la citopenia refractaria infantil y los SMD con exceso de blastocitos (SMD-EB). Los resultados del informe son los siguientes:
  • Se observaron mutaciones en los genes de la vía Ras/MAPK en 43 % de los casos de SMD primarios, las más comunes afectaban los genes PTPN11 y NRAS, pero también se observaron mutaciones en otros genes de la vía (por ejemplo, BRAF [diferentes a la mutación V600E en BRAF], CBL y KRAS). Las mutaciones en la vía Ras/MAPK fueron más comunes en pacientes con SMD-EB (65 %) que en los pacientes con citopenia refractaria infantil (17 %).
  • Se observaron variantes de la línea germinal en SAMD9 (n = 4) o en SAMD9L (n = 4) en 17 % de los pacientes de SMD primarios, donde 7 de las 8 mutaciones ocurrieron en pacientes de citopenia refractaria infantil. En todos estos casos se observó una pérdida de material en el cromosoma 7. Alrededor de 40 % de los pacientes con deleciones de parte o de la totalidad del cromosoma 7 presentaron variantes de la línea germinal en SAMD9 o en SAMD9L.
  • Se observaron mutaciones GATA2 en 3 casos (7 %), y en todos ellos se confirmó o se sospechó que eran de la línea germinal.
  • Las alteraciones en el número de copias más comunes fueron las deleciones en el cromosoma 7, que se observaron en 41 % de los casos. La pérdida parcial o total del cromosoma 7 fue más frecuente en los casos de SAMD9/SAMD9L (100 %) y en pacientes de SMD-EB con mutación en la vía Ras/MAPK (71 %).
  • Otros genes que estaban mutados en más de 1 de los 46 casos estudiados fueron SETBP1, ETV6 y TP53.
En un segundo informe se describió la utilización de un perfil de secuenciación dirigida de 105 genes en 50 pacientes pediátricos de SMD (citopenia refractaria infantil = 31 y SMD-EB = 19) y se enriqueció para los casos con monosomía 7 (48 %).[342,343] SAMD9 y SAMD9L no se incluyeron en el perfil génico. En el segundo informe se describieron los siguientes resultados:
  • Se observaron mutaciones de la línea germinal en GATA2 en 30 % de los pacientes y mutaciones en RUNX1 en 6 % de los pacientes.
  • Se observaron mutaciones somáticas en 34 % de los pacientes y fueron más comunes en pacientes con SMD-EB que en pacientes de citopenia refractaria infantil (68 vs. 13 %).
  • El gen que mutó con más frecuencia fue SETBP1 (18 %); los genes que mutaron con menor frecuencia fueron ASXL1, RUNX1 y los genes de la vía Ras/MAPK (PTPN11, NRAS, KRAS, NF1). Se encontraron mutaciones en los genes de la vía Ras/MAPK en 12 % de los casos.
Los pacientes con mutaciones de la línea germinal en GATA2, además de SMD, exhiben un amplio abanico de defectos hematopoyéticos e inmunológicos así como manifestaciones no hematopoyéticas.[344] Los defectos incluyen monocitopenia con predisposición a infecciones micobacterianas y deficiencia DCML (pérdida de células dendríticas, monocitos y linfocitos B citolíticos naturales). La inmunodeficiencia resultante deriva en una mayor predisposición a las verrugas, virosis graves, infecciones micobacterianas, infecciones fúngicas y cánceres relacionados con el virus del papiloma humano. Las manifestaciones no hematopoyéticas incluyen hipoacusia y linfedema. Se estudiaron las mutaciones de la línea germinal en GATA2 de 426 pacientes pediátricos con SMD primarios y 82 casos con SMD secundarios que participaron en estudios consecutivos del European Working Group of MDS in Childhood (EWOG-MDS).[345] Los resultados del estudio fueron los siguientes:
  • En 7 % de los pacientes pediátricos con SMD primarios se identificaron mutaciones de la línea germinal en GATA2. Si bien la mediana de edad de los pacientes con mutaciones en GATA2 fue de 12,3 años en la población pediátrica del EWOG-MDS, la mayor parte de los casos de neoplasias mieloides relacionadas con la línea germinal en GATA2 se presentan durante la edad adulta.[346]
  • Las mutaciones en GATA2 fueron más comunes en los pacientes con SMD-EB (15 %) que en los pacientes de citopenia refractaria infantil (4 %).
  • Entre los pacientes con mutaciones en GATA2, 46 % presentaba SDM-EB y 70 % exhibió monosomía 7.
  • Se identificó SMD/LMA familiar en 12 de los 53 pacientes con la mutación en GATA2 para los que se disponía de una historia familiar detallada.
  • Los fenotipos no hematológicos de la deficiencia de GATA2 se presentaron en 51 % de los pacientes de SMD con la mutación en GATA2 e incluyeron hipoacusia (9 %), linfedema o hidrocele (23 %) e inmunodeficiencia (39 %).
Las mutaciones de la línea germinal en SAMD9 y SAMD9L se relacionan con casos de SMD con pérdida adicional, total o parcial, del cromosoma 7.[347] En 2016, se identificó el gen SAMD9 como la causa del síndrome MIRAGE (mielodisplasia, infección, restricción del crecimiento, hipoplasia suprarrenal, fenotipos genitales y enteropatía) que se relaciona con los SMD de aparición temprana con monosomía 7.[348] Más tarde, se identificaron mutaciones en SAMD9L en pacientes con síndrome de ataxia-pancitopenia (ATXPC; OMIM 159550Notificación de salida). También se determinó que las mutaciones en SAMD9 y SAMD9L causan el síndrome de mielodisplasia y leucemia con monosomía 7 (MLSM7; OMIM 252270Notificación de salida),[349] un síndrome que se detectó por primera vez en hermanos que tenían un fenotipo normal pero que luego presentaron SMD o LMA relacionados con monosomía 7 durante la infancia.[350]
  • Las mutaciones causales en SAMD9 y SAMD9L son mutaciones de ganancia de función que intensifican la actividad supresora del crecimiento de SAMD9/SAMD9L.[348,350]
  • SAMD9 y SAMD9L están en el cromosoma 7q21.2. Los casos de SMD en pacientes con mutaciones en SAMD9 o SAMD9L a menudo exhiben monosomía 7 y el otro cromosoma 7 tiene SAMD9/SAMD9L naturales. Esto lleva a que se pierda el efecto intensificador del gen mutado en la actividad supresora del crecimiento.
  • Los pacientes de fenotipo normal con mutaciones en SAMD9/SAMD9L y monosomía 7 a veces presentan SMD o LMA, o por el contrario, pierden la monosomía 7 y su hematopoyesis se normaliza.[350] El primer desenlace se relaciona con la aparición de mutaciones en los genes relacionados con los SMD o la LMA (por ejemplo, ETV6 o SETBP1), mientras que el segundo desenlace se relaciona con modificaciones genéticas (por ejemplo, mutaciones inversas o pérdida de la heterocigosidad sin cambio en el número de copias con retención del alelo natural) que llevan a la normalización de la actividad de SAMD9/SAMD9L. Estas observaciones sugieren que el seguimiento de los pacientes con monosomía 7 relacionada con SAMD9/SAMD9L mediante la secuenciación clínica de las mutaciones adquiridas en genes relacionados con la formación de la LMA, permitiría identificar a los pacientes con riesgo alto de transformación leucémica que se beneficiarían más de un trasplante de células madre hematopoyéticas.[350]
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