Leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil: Tratamiento (PDQ®)–Versión para profesionales de salud
SECCIONES
- Información general sobre la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil
- Asignación del tratamiento según el riesgo
- Aspectos generales de las opciones de tratamiento de la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil
- Tratamiento de la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil recién diagnosticada
- Tratamiento de posinducción para la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil
- Tratamiento dirigido al sistema nervioso central para la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil
- Tratamiento de posinducción para subgrupos específicos de leucemia linfoblástica aguda
- Tratamiento de la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil recidivante
- Modificaciones a este sumario (09/16/2016)
- Información sobre este sumario del PDQ
- Ver todas las secciones
Información general sobre la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil
Afortunadamente, el cáncer es poco frecuente en los niños y los adolescentes, aunque la incidencia general de cáncer infantil, incluida la leucemia linfoblástica aguda (LLA), ha aumentado lentamente desde 1975.[1] Los niños y adolescentes con cáncer se deben derivar a centros médicos que cuenten con un equipo multidisciplinario de especialistas con experiencia en el tratamiento de los cánceres que se presentan en la niñez y la adolescencia. Este abordaje de equipo multidisciplinario incorpora la pericia de los siguientes profesionales de la atención de la salud y otros para asegurar que los niños reciban el tratamiento, los cuidados médicos de apoyo y la rehabilitación que les permita alcanzar una supervivencia y calidad de vida óptimas:
- Médicos de atención primaria.
- Subespecialistas en cirugía pediátrica.
- Radioncólogos.
- Oncólogos o hematólogos especializados en medicina pediátrica.
- Especialistas en rehabilitación.
- Especialistas en enfermería pediátrica.
- Trabajadores sociales.
- Ludoterapeutas infantiles.
- Psicólogos.
(Para obtener información específica sobre los cuidados médicos de apoyo para niños y adolescentes con cáncer, consultar los sumarios del PDQ sobre Cuidados médicos de apoyo).
La American Academy of Pediatrics estableció pautas para los centros de cáncer y su función en el tratamiento de los niños con cáncer.[2] Dado que el tratamiento de los niños con LLA implica asignación de riesgo y terapias complicadas, además de la necesidad de cuidados médicos de apoyo intensivos (por ejemplo, transfusiones, manejo de complicaciones infecciosas, y apoyo en los ámbitos emocional, económico y del desarrollo), los pediatras oncólogos de centros y hospitales de oncología con las instalaciones necesarias para ofrecer todos los cuidados de apoyo pediátrico, son quienes mejor pueden coordinar la evaluación y el tratamiento. Es importante que los centros clínicos y los especialistas encargados de la salud del paciente mantengan contacto con el médico que lo derivó. Las vías fuertes de comunicación optimizan cualquier atención de urgencia o provisional necesaria cuando el niño está en el hogar.
Se han logrado mejoras notables en la supervivencia de niños y adolescentes con cáncer.[1,3,4] Entre 1975 y 2010, la mortalidad por cáncer infantil disminuyó en más de 50 %.[1,3,4] Para la LLA, la tasa de supervivencia general a 5 años ha aumentado durante el mismo período de 60 a cerca de 90 % en los niños menores de 15 años y de 28 a más de 75 % en los adolescentes de 15 a 19 años.[1,5] Los niños y adolescentes sobrevivientes de cáncer necesitan un seguimiento cuidadoso, ya que los efectos secundarios del tratamiento de cáncer pueden persistir o presentarse meses o años después de este. (Para obtener información específica sobre la incidencia, el tipo y la vigilancia de los efectos tardíos en los niños y adolescentes sobrevivientes de cáncer, consultar el sumario del PDQ sobre Efectos tardíos del tratamiento anticanceroso en la niñez).
Incidencia y características epidemiológicas
La LLA es el cáncer que se diagnostica con más frecuencia en los niños y representa aproximadamente 25 % de los diagnósticos de cáncer en los niños menores de 15 años.[3,4] La LLA se presenta a una tasa anual de 35 a 40 casos por millón de personas en los Estados Unidos.[3,4,6] En los Estados Unidos, cada año se diagnostican con LLA alrededor de 2900 niños y adolescentes menores de 20 años.[6,7] Durante los últimos 25 años, se ha presentado un aumento gradual de la incidencia de la LLA.[3,4,8]
Se observó un aumento marcado de la incidencia de LLA en los niños entre 2 y 3 años (>90 casos por 1 millón al año), con tasas que disminuyeron a menos de 30 casos por millón a los 8 años de edad.[3,4] La incidencia de LLA en niños entre 2 y 3 años es casi 4 veces mayor que en los lactantes y es, del mismo modo, de 4 a 5 veces mayor que en los niños de 10 años o más.[3,4]
Características anatómicas
La LLA infantil se origina en los linfoblastos de células T y células B en la médula ósea (consultar la Figura 1).
El compromiso medular de la leucemia aguda, tal como se observa en el microscopio óptico, se define como sigue:
- M1: menos de 5 % de blastocitos.
- M2: de 5 a 25 % de blastocitos.
- M3: más de 25 % de blastocitos.
La mayoría de pacientes con leucemia aguda presentan médula M3.
Factores de riesgo de leucemia linfoblástica aguda
Se han identificado pocos factores relacionados con un aumento de riesgo de LLA. Los siguientes son los principales factores de riesgo aceptados de LLA:
- Exposición prenatal a los rayos X.
- Exposición posnatal a dosis altas de radiación (por ejemplo, la radiación terapéutica, como se solía usar para afecciones como la tiña capitis o hiperplasia tímica).
- Las siguientes afecciones genéticas:
- Polimorfismos genéticos hereditarios.[14]
- Los portadores de una traslocación robertsoniana constitucional que afecta los cromosomas 15 y 21 están específica y altamente predispuestos a presentar LLA iAMP21.[15]
Síndrome de Down
Los niños con síndrome de Down tienen mayor riesgo tanto de LLA como de leucemia mieloide aguda (LMA),[16,17] con un riesgo acumulado de leucemia de alrededor de 2,1 % a los 5 años y de 2,7 % a los 30 años.[16,17]
Cerca de un medio a dos tercios de los casos de leucemia aguda en los niños con síndrome de Down son LLA y alrededor de 2 a 3 % de los casos de LLA infantil se presentan en niños con este síndrome.[18-20] Mientras que la gran mayoría de casos de LMA en niños con síndrome de Down se presentan antes de los 4 años (mediana de edad, 1 año),[21] la LLA en los niños con este síndrome tiene una distribución etaria similar a la de la LLA en niños sin este síndrome, con una mediana de edad de 3 a 4 años.[18,19]
Los pacientes con LLA y síndrome de Down tienen una incidencia más baja de hallazgos citogenéticos favorables (t(12;21) e hiperdiploidía), y desfavorables (t(9;22) o t(4;11) e hipodiploidía), y un fenotipo de células T casi ausente.[18-22] Aproximadamente 50 a 60 % de los casos de LLA en los niños con síndrome de Down presentan alteraciones genómicas que afectan a CRLF2 que, en general, producen la sobrexpresión de este gen.[23-25] Se observan alteraciones genómicas de CRLF2 con una frecuencia mucho menor (<10 %) en los niños con LLA de células B precursoras sin síndrome de Down.[25-27] No parece que las anomalías genómicas de CRLF2 en pacientes de síndrome de Down y LLA tengan importancia pronóstica.[24] Sin embargo, las deleciones génicas de IKZF1 que se observaron en hasta 35 % de los pacientes con síndrome de Down y LLA se relacionaron con un desenlace mucho más precario en este grupo de pacientes.[24]
En casi 20 % de los casos de LLA en niños con síndrome de Down, se observan mutaciones somáticas adquiridas de JAK2,[23,24,28-30] que es un hallazgo poco común en los niños más pequeños con LLA, pero que se observa principalmente en un subgrupo de niños grandes y adolescentes con riesgo alto de LLA de células B precursoras.[31] Casi todos los casos de LLA y síndrome de Down con mutaciones de JAK2 también tienen alteraciones genómicas de CRLF2.[23-25] Las pruebas preliminares no indican ninguna correlación entre el estado de la mutación de JAK2 y la supervivencia sin complicaciones a 5 años en niños con síndrome de Down y LLA,[24,29] pero es necesario realizar más estudios para abordar este tema y la importancia pronóstica de las deleciones del gen IKZF1.
Polimorfismos genéticos hereditarios
En estudios de los vínculos de todo el genoma, se observa que algunos polimorfismos genéticos de la línea germinal (hereditarios) se relacionan con la presentación de LLA infantil.[32,33] Por ejemplo, los alelos de riesgo de ARID5B tienen una relación estrecha con la presentación de LLA de células B precursoras hiperdiploides. El ARID5B es un gen que codifica un factor de transcripción importante para el desarrollo embrionario, la expresión génica específica del tipo de célula y la regulación de la proliferación celular.[34,35] Además, se ha establecido una relación entre las variaciones de la línea germinal en ETV6 y una predisposición a la LLA infantil. [36] En varios estudios, incluso en un metanálisis de 11 trabajos publicados, se indicó que el polimorfismo de CEBPE, un factor de transcripción esencial para la generación de neutrófilos, también se relaciona con un aumento de riesgo de presentar LLA.[37]
En otro estudio de asociación del genoma completo en la población de adolescentes y adultos jóvenes, se identificaron polimorfismos distintivos de GATA3 que influyen fuertemente en la susceptibilidad a la leucemia de esta población.[38]
Origen prenatal de la leucemia linfoblástica aguda infantil
En la mayoría de los casos, la aparición de la LLA es un proceso de varios pasos, el cual requiere más de una alteración genómica para que se presente leucemia manifiesta. Al menos en algunos casos de LLA infantil, la alteración genómica inicial parece ocurrir en el útero. Las pruebas que respaldan esto provienen de la observación de reordenamientos de la inmunoglobulina o el antígeno receptor de células T, que son únicas de las células leucémicas de cada paciente y que se pueden detectar en las muestras de sangre tomadas en el momento del nacimiento.[39,40] De modo similar, en la LLA caracterizada por anomalías cromosómicas específicas, algunos pacientes parecen tener células sanguíneas con al menos una anomalía genómica leucémica en el momento del nacimiento, con cambios genómicos cooperativos adicionales posnatales.[39-41] Los estudios genómicos de gemelos idénticos con leucemia coincidente respaldan aún más el origen prenatal de algunos tipos de leucemia.[39,42]
También hay pruebas de que algunos niños que nunca presentaron LLA nacieron con unas células sanguíneas muy poco frecuentes con una alteración genómica relacionada con la LLA. Por ejemplo, en un estudio, 1 % de las gotas de sangre de neonatos (tarjetas de Guthrie) mostró un resultado positivo para la traslocación ETV6-RUNX1, muy superior al número de casos de LLA infantil positiva para ETV6-RUNX1.[43] En otros informes, se confirma [44] o no se confirma [45,46] este hallazgo; asimismo, aspectos metodológicos relacionados con las pruebas de hibridación fluorescente in situ complican la interpretación del cálculo inicial de 1 %.[47] No obstante, si se confirmara, respaldaría la hipótesis de que los cambios genómicos posnatales adicionales son necesarios para la presentación de este tipo de LLA y de que, en la mayoría de los casos en los que las alteraciones relacionadas con la leucemia están presentes en el momento del nacimiento, no se presentan cambios genómicos leucemógenos adicionales y no aparece leucemia.
Presentación clínica
Diagnóstico
Desenlaces generales de la leucemia linfoblástica aguda
Más de 95 % de los niños con LLA alcanzan la remisión y se prevé que cerca de 80 % de los pacientes entre 1 y 18 años con LLA recién diagnosticada tratados con los regímenes actuales sean sobrevivientes sin complicaciones a largo plazo.[52-57]
A pesar de los avances mencionados en el tratamiento de la LLA infantil, todavía hay numerosos interrogantes biológicos y terapéuticos por responder antes de que se logre el objetivo de curar a cada niño con LLA con la menor toxicidad relacionada. Para la investigación sistemática de estos interrogantes, se necesitan ensayos clínicos numerosos y que se brinde la oportunidad de participar en ellos a la mayoría de pacientes y sus familias.
Los ensayos clínicos para niños y adolescentes con LLA están, por lo general, diseñados para comparar tratamientos que se aceptan en la actualidad como estándar con regímenes investigativos que buscan mejorar las tasas de curación o disminuir la toxicidad. En ciertos ensayos en los que la tasa de curación para el grupo de pacientes es muy alta, se pueden plantear interrogantes sobre la reducción del tratamiento. La mayoría de los avances realizados en la identificación de tratamientos curativos para la LLA infantil y otros cánceres infantiles se ha logrado por medio de descubrimientos de los investigadores y de su puesta a prueba en ensayos clínicos controlados, aleatorizados y multinstitucionales. Para obtener más información sobre ensayos clínicos en curso, consultar el portal de Internet del NCI.
Ensayos clínicos en curso
Consultar la lista de estudios o ensayos clínicos sobre el cáncer auspiciados por el NCI que están aceptando pacientes. Para realizar la búsqueda, usar el término en inglés childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. La lista de ensayos se puede reducir aun más por la ubicación, los medicamentos que se utilizan, el tipo de intervención y otros criterios. Nota: los resultados obtenidos solo están en inglés.
Asimismo, se dispone de información general sobre ensayos clínicos en el portal de Internet del NCI.
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Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment (PDQ®)—Health Professional Version - National Cancer Institute
Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Treatment (PDQ®)–Health Professional Version
SECTIONS
- General Information About Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
- Risk-Based Treatment Assignment
- Treatment Option Overview for Childhood ALL
- Treatment for Newly Diagnosed Childhood ALL
- Postinduction Treatment for Childhood ALL
- CNS-Directed Therapy for Childhood ALL
- Postinduction Treatment for Specific ALL Subgroups
- Treatment of Relapsed Childhood ALL
- Changes to this Summary (08/26/2016)
- About This PDQ Summary
- View All Sections
General Information About Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL)
Cancer in children and adolescents is rare, although the overall incidence of childhood cancer, including ALL, has been slowly increasing since 1975.[1] Dramatic improvements in survival have been achieved in children and adolescents with cancer.[1-3] Between 1975 and 2010, childhood cancer mortality decreased by more than 50%.[1-3] For ALL, the 5-year survival rate has increased over the same time from 60% to approximately 90% for children younger than 15 years and from 28% to more than 75% for adolescents aged 15 to 19 years.[4] Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors require close monitoring because cancer therapy side effects may persist or develop months or years after treatment. (Refer to the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer for specific information about the incidence, type, and monitoring of late effects in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors.)
Incidence
ALL is the most common cancer diagnosed in children and represents approximately 25% of cancer diagnoses among children younger than 15 years.[2,3] In the United States, ALL occurs at an annual rate of approximately 41 cases per 1 million people aged 0 to 14 years and approximately 17 cases per 1 million people aged 15 to 19 years.[4] There are approximately 3,100 children and adolescents younger than 20 years diagnosed with ALL each year in the United States.[5] Since 1975, there has been a gradual increase in the incidence of ALL.[4,6]
A sharp peak in ALL incidence is observed among children aged 2 to 3 years (>90 cases per 1 million per year), with rates decreasing to fewer than 30 cases per 1 million by age 8 years.[2,3] The incidence of ALL among children aged 2 to 3 years is approximately fourfold greater than that for infants and is likewise fourfold to fivefold greater than that for children aged 10 years and older.[2,3]
Anatomy
Childhood ALL originates in the T and B lymphoblasts in the bone marrow (refer to Figure 1).
Marrow involvement of acute leukemia as seen by light microscopy is defined as follows:
- M1: Fewer than 5% blast cells.
- M2: 5% to 25% blast cells.
- M3: Greater than 25% blast cells.
Almost all patients with ALL present with an M3 marrow.
Risk Factors for Developing ALL
Few factors associated with an increased risk of ALL have been identified. The primary accepted risk factors for ALL and associated genes (when relevant) include the following:
- Prenatal exposure to x-rays.
- Postnatal exposure to high doses of radiation (e.g., therapeutic radiation as previously used for conditions such as tinea capitis and thymus enlargement).
- Genetic conditions that include the following:
- Down syndrome. (Refer to the Down syndrome section of this summary for more information.)
- Neurofibromatosis (NF1).[9]
- Bloom syndrome (BLM).[10]
- Fanconi anemia (multiple genes; ALL is observed much less frequently than acute myeloid leukemia [AML]).[11]
- Ataxia telangiectasia (ATM).[12]
- Li-Fraumeni syndrome (TP53).[13-15]
- Constitutional mismatch repair deficiency (biallelic mutation of MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2).[16,17]
- Low- and high-penetrance inherited genetic variants.[18] (Refer to the Low- and high-penetrance inherited genetic variants section of this summary for more information.)
- Carriers of a constitutional Robertsonian translocation that involves chromosomes 15 and 21 are specifically and highly predisposed to developing iAMP21 ALL.[19]
Down syndrome
Children with Down syndrome have an increased risk of developing both ALL and AML,[20,21] with a cumulative risk of developing leukemia of approximately 2.1% by age 5 years and 2.7% by age 30 years.[20,21]
Approximately one-half to two-thirds of cases of acute leukemia in children with Down syndrome are ALL, and about 2% to 3% of childhood ALL cases occur in children with Down syndrome.[22-24] While the vast majority of cases of AML in children with Down syndrome occur before the age of 4 years (median age, 1 year),[25] ALL in children with Down syndrome has an age distribution similar to that of ALL in non–Down syndrome children, with a median age of 3 to 4 years.[22,23]
Patients with ALL and Down syndrome have a lower incidence of both favorable (t(12;21)(p13;q22)/ETV6-RUNX1 [TEL-AML1]) and hyperdiploidy [51–65 chromosomes]) and unfavorable (t(9;22)(q34;q11.2)) or t(4;11)(q21;q23) and hypodiploidy [<44 chromosomes]) cytogenetic findings and a near absence of T-cell phenotype.[22-26]
Approximately 50% to 60% of cases of ALL in children with Down syndrome have genomic alterations affecting CRLF2 that generally result in overexpression of the protein produced by this gene, which dimerizes with the interleukin-7 receptor alpha to form the receptor for the cytokine thymic stromal lymphopoietin.[27-29] CRLF2 genomic alterations are observed at a much lower frequency (<10%) in children with precursor B-cell ALL who do not have Down syndrome.[29-31] Based on the relatively small number of published series, it does not appear that genomic CRLF2 aberrations in patients with Down syndrome and ALL have prognostic relevance.[26,28] However, IKZF1 gene deletions, observed in up to 35% of patients with Down syndrome and ALL, have been associated with a significantly worse outcome in this group of patients.[28,32]
Approximately 20% of ALL cases arising in children with Down syndrome have somatically acquired JAK2 mutations,[27,28,33-35] a finding that is uncommon among younger children with ALL but that is observed in a subset of primarily older children and adolescents with high-risk precursor B-cell ALL.[36] Almost all Down syndrome ALL cases with JAK2mutations also have CRLF2 genomic alterations.[27-29] Preliminary evidence suggests no correlation between JAK2 mutation status and 5-year event-free survival in children with Down syndrome and ALL,[28,34] but more study is needed to address this issue, as well as the prognostic significance of CRLF2 alterations and IKZF1 gene deletions in this patient population.
Low- and high-penetrance inherited genetic variants
Genetic predisposition to ALL can be divided into the following several broad categories:
- Association with genetic syndromes. Increased risk can be associated with the genetic syndromes listed above in which ALL is observed, although it is not the primary manifestation of the condition.
- Common alleles. Another category for genetic predisposition includes common alleles with relatively small effect sizes that are identified by genome-wide association studies. Genome-wide association studies have identified a number of germline (inherited) genetic polymorphisms that are associated with the development of childhood ALL.[18] For example, the risk alleles of ARID5B are associated with the development of hyperdiploid (51–65 chromosomes) precursor B-cell ALL. ARID5B is a gene that encodes a transcriptional factor important in embryonic development, cell type–specific gene expression, and cell growth regulation.[37,38] Other genes with polymorphisms associated with increased risk of ALL include GATA3, IKZF1, CDKN2A, CEBPE, PIP4K2A, andTP63.[18]
- Rare germline variants with high penetrance. A germline variant in PAX5 that substitutes serine for glycine at amino acid 183 and that reduces PAX5 activity has been identified in several families that experienced multiple cases of ALL.[39,40] Similarly, several germline ETV6 variants that lead to loss of ETV6 function have been identified in kindreds affected by both thrombocytopenia and ALL.[41-43] Sequencing of ETV6 in remission (i.e., germline) specimens identified variants that were potentially related to ALL in approximately 1% of children with ALL that were evaluated.[41] This suggests a previously unrecognized contribution to ALL risk that will need to be assessed in future studies.[41-43]
Prenatal origin of childhood ALL
Development of ALL is in most cases a multistep process, with more than one genomic alteration required for frank leukemia to develop. In at least some cases of childhood ALL, the initial genomic alteration appears to occur in utero. Evidence to support this comes from the observation that the immunoglobulin or T-cell receptor antigen rearrangements that are unique to each patient’s leukemia cells can be detected in blood samples obtained at birth.[44,45] Similarly, in ALL characterized by specific chromosomal abnormalities, some patients have blood cells that carry at least one leukemic genomic abnormality at the time of birth, with additional cooperative genomic changes acquired postnatally.[44-46] Genomic studies of identical twins with concordant leukemia further support the prenatal origin of some leukemias.[44,47]
Evidence also exists that some children who never develop ALL are born with very rare blood cells carrying a genomic alteration associated with ALL. For example, in one study, 1% of neonatal blood spots (Guthrie cards) tested positive for the ETV6-RUNX1translocation, far exceeding the number of cases of ETV6-RUNX1 ALL in children.[48] Other reports confirm [49] or do not confirm [50,51] this finding, and methodological issues related to fluorescence in situ hybridization testing complicate interpretation of the initial 1% estimate.[52]
Clinical Presentation
Diagnosis
The 2016 revision to the World Health Organization classification of tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues lists the following entities for acute lymphoid leukemias:[57]
B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma, not otherwise specified (NOS).
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with recurrent genetic abnormalities.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(9;22)(q34.1;q11.2); BCR-ABL1.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(v;11q23.3); KMT2A rearranged.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(12;21)(p13.2;q22.1); ETV6-RUNX1.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with hyperdiploidy.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with hypodiploidy.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(5;14)(q31.1;q32.3); IL3-IGH.
- B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with t(1;19)(q23;p13.3); TCF3-PBX1.
- Provisional entity: B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma, BCR-ABL1–like.
- Provisional entity: B-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma with iAMP21.
T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma
- Provisional entity: Early T-cell precursor lymphoblastic leukemia.
Key clinical and biological characteristics, as well as the prognostic significance for these entities, are discussed in the Cytogenetics/genomics alterations section of this summary.
Overall Outcome for ALL
Among children with ALL, approximately 98% attain remission, and approximately 85% of patients aged 1 to 18 years with newly diagnosed ALL treated on current regimens are expected to be long-term event-free survivors, with over 90% surviving at 5 years.[58-61]
Despite the treatment advances in childhood ALL, numerous important biologic and therapeutic questions remain to be answered before the goal of curing every child with ALL with the least associated toxicity can be achieved. The systematic investigation of these issues requires large clinical trials, and the opportunity to participate in these trials is offered to most patients and families.
Clinical trials for children and adolescents with ALL are generally designed to compare therapy that is currently accepted as standard with investigational regimens that seek to improve cure rates and/or decrease toxicity. In certain trials in which the cure rate for the patient group is very high, therapy reduction questions may be asked. Much of the progress made in identifying curative therapies for childhood ALL and other childhood cancers has been achieved through investigator-driven discovery and tested in carefully randomized, controlled, multi-institutional clinical trials. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI website.
Current Clinical Trials
Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients withchildhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The list of clinical trials can be further narrowed by location, drug, intervention, and other criteria.
General information about clinical trials is also available from the NCI website.
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